Doug V. Heck

Introduction: Lecture One and Two will seek to sketch the historical period between the Old Testament and the New Testament. Generally, this period covers 400 B.C. to the time of Jesus Christ.⁽¹⁾

Similar to all history, is the sovereign providential acts of God. As Oliver Cromwell said, "What are all histories but God manifesting himself?" But history also includes God manifesting His will to man, as demonstrated in punishing evil and rewarding good. James Anthony Froude says, "History is a voice forever sounding across the centuries the laws of right and wrong." One of the clearest examples of God manifesting Himself and this forever sounding voice of right and wrong, is seen in the historical period between the OT and the NT. This lesson will sketch an outline from the Persian king Cyrus to the Roman emperor Augustus, and look at the major players of Herod's family, in order to set a stage for NT times.

Prerequisite to understanding Daniel 8-11, along with numerous NT passages dealing with prophetic themes, is an awareness of the historical events from the Persian king Cyrus to the Roman emperor Augustus.⁽²⁾

A. The Persian Period. In 586 B.C. Jerusalem fell to Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. The Medes and the Persians came to power in 539 B.C. by taking Babylon without a siege. Persian foreign policy was more tolerant and resulted in the Jews being allowed to return to Judea.⁽³⁾ The temple began reconstruction in 537 B. C. and completed in 515 B.C.⁽⁴⁾ Following these events, the walls of Jerusalem were rebuilt under the leadership of Nehemiah, around 445 B.C. Leading figures of the Persian period include the following.

1.) Cyrus (538-529 B.C.) took Babylon in 539 B.C., changing the foreign policy to one of toleration and decentralization of government. Hence, under Cyrus the Jews were allowed to return to Judea and begin rebuilding the temple. His foreign policy toward the Jews is mentioned in Ezra 1:1-4.

Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, so that the word of the Lord by the mouth of Jeremiah might be fulfilled [cf. Jeremiah 25:11-14], the Lord stirred up the spirit of Cyrus, king of Persia, that he made a proclamation throughout all his kingdom, and put it also in writing, saying, Thus saith Cyrus, king of Persia: The Lord God of heaven hath given me all the kingdoms of the earth; and he hath charged me to build him an house at Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Who is there among you of all his people? His God be with him, and let him go up to Jerusalem, which is in Judah, and build the house of the Lord God of Israel (he is the God), which is in Jerusalem. And whoever remaineth in any place where he sojourneth, let the men of his place help him with silver, and with gold, and with goods, and with beasts, beside the freewill offering for the house of God that is in Jerusalem.⁽⁵⁾

2.) Xerxes (485-465 B.C.) followed the rule of Cambyses (529-522 B.C.) and Darius I (522-486 B.C.).⁽⁶⁾ Xerxes is known in the OT as Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther. (cf. Ezra 4:6; Esther) Daniel 11:2 predicts:

Now then, I tell you the truth: Three more kings will appear in Persia, and then a fourth, who will be far richer than all the others. When he has gained power by his wealth, he will stir up everyone against the kingdom of Greece. Then a mighty king will appear, who will rule with great power and do as he pleases.⁽⁷⁾

This "fourth king, who will be far richer than all the others" would be Xerxes, whose invasion of Greece in 480-479 B.C. led to a Persian defeat, which paved the way for a future Greek challenge under Alexander the Great. This invasion was the largest in ancient history, with Herodotus claiming the Persian invasion force had 2,641,000 fighting men with an equal number of engineers, slaves, and merchants!⁽⁸⁾

The Greco-Persian War was the most momentous conflict in European history, for it made Europe possible. It won for Western civilization the opportunity to develop its own economic life - unburdened with alien tribute or taxation - and its own political institutions, free from the dictation of Oriental kings. It won for Greece a clear road for the first great experiment in liberty; it preserved the Greek mind for three centuries from the enerving mysticism of the East, and secured for Greek enterprise full freedom of the sea...The victory of little Hellas against such odds stimulated the pride and lifted up the spirit of its people; out of very gratitude they felt called upon to do unprecedented things. After centuries of preparation and sacrifice Greece entered its Golden Age.⁽⁹⁾

3.) Artaxerxes I (464-424 B.C.) called Longimanus ("the long-handed one") was the king under whom Nehemiah served as cupbearer. cf. Nehemiah 1:1-2:8. Similar to Esther, it's easy to see the sovereign plan of God in placing Nehemiah in a place of significant leadership, close to the ear of the Persian king.

Following the reign of Artaxerxes I, were five rulers whose reigns suffered a progressive disintegration of the Persian empire. For example, Xenophon (once a pupil of Socrates) writes in his famous book Anabasis , how the Greeks were hired as mercenaries by a claimant to the Persian throne, to wage war against the recognized king. The story records how the Greeks learned through the mercenary experience that the Persian Empire was internally weak and could be challenged militarily. This was encouraging information as under "the reigns of Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes, Greece suffered more sorrows than in twenty generations before."⁽¹⁰⁾ Once again, God was providentially preparing the Greek people to think the unthinkable - challenge the invincible might of the Persian army. And what was then the unthinkable became the obtainable under Alexander, when God's timetable was right two decades later. The challenge of Persian rule by Greece, is one of the most interesting manifestations of God's providential intervention. The empire of Persia was the largest the world had ever seen.⁽¹¹⁾ Following the Persian period came...

B. The Hellenistic Period. Imperative in understanding the spread of the church, as recorded in the Book of Acts, is an understanding of the cultural domination of Hellenism.⁽¹²⁾ Here we focus on 2 men of Macedonia and 2 dynasties of Hellenism.

1.) Philip of Macedonia.

During these years the cultural distinctive of Hellinism was born, with a great educational movement illustrated by the Sophists. Democracy flourished in Athens, championing a free speech movement; oligarchy flourished in Sparta, championing a challenge to Athens. A showdown civil war, known as the Peloponnesian Wars, left Sparta as the victor but Athens as the center of Greek culture. And above all, this was the age of individualism.

These changes may be epitomized in Isocrates

The stage was now set for Philip II of Macedonia (359-336 B.C.) who carried the Hellenistic nationalism to unify all Greeks. Having learned at Thebes unique military philosophy, Philip II of Macedonia developed the effective phalanxes - sixteen rows of men pointing lances over their heads or raising them on the shoulders of the rows ahead of them, making each phalanx an iron wall. Will Durant describes this military innovation:

The lance, twenty-one feet long, was weighted at the rear, so that when held aloft it projected fifteen feet forward. As each row of soldiers marched three feet before the next, the lances of the first five rows projected beyond the phalanx, and the lances of the first three rows had a greater reach than the six-foot javelin of the nearest Greek hoplite...Philip drilled his army of ten thousand men into the most powerful fighting instrument that Europe had yet known.⁽¹⁴⁾

He waged war year around, instead of simply seasonal campaigns, and in 338 B.C. at the battle of Chaeronea he became ruler or general over all Greece.⁽¹⁵⁾

2.) Alexander the Great.

Claiming the united Greek kingdom of his father Philip II, Thebes revolted and Alexander made an example by demolishing the city. Hence, the other Greek cities fell in line under the young Alexander. Liberating the Greek cities of Asia Minor, he fought a telling battle at Issus (333 B.C.) which allowed him to claim the western areas of the Persian empire. He drove all the way to the Indus river before dying of fever in Babylon.

Alexander the Great was the prominent "horn" of the "goat"(Greece) of Daniel's vision, who destroyed the mighty "ram" (i.e., Medo-Persian empire) with "two-horns" (the two parts of the empire) in Daniel's vision of 8:1-27. When Alexander died his kingdom was divided among four generals (cf. Dan. 8:8).⁽¹⁶⁾

Alexander founded a number of Greek cities, resulting in the spread of Greek culture and language.⁽¹⁷⁾ Once again, God was providentially preparing the best language and climate for the gospel to flourish. In many ways, Alexander ushered in the Hellenistic Age.⁽¹⁸⁾ And one of the main contributions of Hellenism was its language - koine Greek. Michael Green helps us understand its value:

Moreover, it was a sensitive, adaptable language, ideally suited for the propagation of a theological message, because for centuries it had been used to express the reflections of some of the world's greatest thinkers, and thus had a ready-made philosophical and theological vocabulary. The lack of this specialist vocabulary in Latin led to difficulties some 250 years later, when Latin replaced Greek as the common language of the Western Empire.⁽¹⁹⁾

But it was not God's will that Alexander continue to unify the world under the Hellinistic culture and when he died, Alexander's generals fought for control. Antipater

Daniel mentions two visions, which outline the four major imperial kingdoms: Babylon, Medo-Persian, Greek and Roman. cf. Daniel 2:31-45 and 7:1-28. Following the Babylonian kingdom was the Medo-Persian empire, which in Nebuchadnezzar's vision was the "breast and arms of silver" cf. 2:32,39 (two, referring to the shared kingdom) and in Daniel's vision was "like a bear" cf. 7:5, with "three ribs in its mouth," speaking of the threefold dominion of Babylon, Media and Persia.

The kingdom of Greece was represented in Nebuchadnezzar's image as the "belly and thighs of bronze" cf. Dan. 2:32,39, and in Daniel's vision as "a leopard with four wings," perhaps speaking of the rapidity of Alexander's conquests. cf. 7:6. The "four heads" may have representation with the four major generals

3.) The Ptolemaic Dynasty. The Ptolemaic dynasty was founded by Ptolemy I in 324 B.C., with its capital in Alexandria, Egypt. Ptolemy I annexed Palestine to Egypt in 320 B.C., which remained for the next 122 years. Under the Ptolemaic dynasty, the Jews were governed by their own high priests, subject to the Ptolemaic government. It was under Ptolemy I that the great library in Alexandria Egypt was founded, expanded under his son Ptolemy II, making Alexandria the cultural and intellectual center of the world.

4.) The Seleucid Dynasty.

a.) The Battle of Magnesia.

b.) The bribes of Jason and Menelaus.

c.) The blasphemy of Antiochus IV .⁽²²⁾ Chapped at his failed venture of Egyptian annexation, Antiochus blew into Jerusalem and sacked and burned the city, plundering the temple and massacred many of the chief citizens.⁽²³⁾ Seeking to impose his form of Hellenism by force, he outlawed: the observance of the Sabbath, the rite of circumcision, and the possession of the Hebrew Scriptures. Each of these were capital crimes, causing of course a popular revolt against Antiochus the insane. The battle cry rang out in December 167 B.C. when Antiochus had a sow sacrificed on the altar of burnt offering in the temple. As Daniel had predicted from his vision in 8:9-14, "It will take 2,300 evenings and mornings; then the sanctuary will be reconsecrated."⁽²⁴⁾

d.) The Maccabean revolt.

II. The Roman Empire and the Herodian Succession

The NT assumes the power of the Roman Empire, and without an understanding of the Roman Herodian dynasty and its interplay with Rome, many passages within the Gospels and Acts are left without a historical framework of interpretation. cf. Bruce text pp. 20-31.

Daniel 2:31-45 and 7:1-28 record two visions, one by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon and one by Daniel. In both, God was unfolding the four major kingdoms to come, with the fourth being Rome.

And the fourth kingdom shall be strong as iron, forasmuch as iron breaketh in pieces and subdueth all things; and as iron that breaketh all these, shall it break in pieces and bruise.

After this I saw in the night visions, and, behold, a fourth beast, dreadful and terrible, and strong exceedingly, and it had great iron teeth; it devoured and broke in pieces, and stamped the residue with its feet; and it was diverse from all the beasts that were before it, and it had ten horns...Thus he said, The fourth beast shall be the fourth kingdom upon the earth, which shall be diverse from all kingdoms, and shall devour the whole earth, and shall tread it down, and break it in pieces.⁽²⁶⁾

This fourth beast, Rome, became the most powerful earthly empire in history.⁽²⁷⁾ Even the name for the city, Rome, is the Greek word for "strength," which she cultivated!

A. The Roman Period.

1.) Pompey and Subjugation of Judea.

2.) The Battle of Actium.

3.) Octavian or Augustus. Octavian held absolute power in Rome. His res gestae (his political and propaganda position) records:

When I had extinguished the flames of civil war, after receiving by universal consent the absolute control of affairs, I transferred the republic from my own control to the will of the senate and the Roman people. For this service on my part I was given the title Augustus by decree of the senate.⁽²⁸⁾

The name Augustus, was the Greek term suggesting the numinous or something more than human, but without a precise category. In philosophical writings this term is sometimes reserved for God, gods or super-human beings, who are to be feared.

B. The Herodian Dynasty. 

In 63 B.C. Pompey marked the end of Jewish independence and the Hasmonean house (142-63 B.C.), and reorganized the government of Palestine. Representing Roman rule has the dynasty of Herod.

1.) Herod the Great.

The first heading, considers the consolidation of Herod's rule (37-25 B.C.). Herod was a master politician and first worked at subjugating the Pharisees, who were skeptical of this Idumean half-Jew who was so closely aligned with Rome. Josephus mentions that he executed 45 of the Sadducees, many of them being members of the Sanhedrin.⁽²⁹⁾ He also had problems with Cleopatra of Egypt who also aligned with Antony. When Octavius defeated Anthony at the Battle of Actium (Sept. 2, 31 B.C.) Herod convinced Octavius that he was the legitimate ruler of Palestine and switched allegiance to Octavius.

The second heading, considers the prosperity

And the third heading, considers the domestic troubles of Herod's rule (14-4 B.C.). Herod the Great had married 10 wives, who claimed sons as heirs of his kingdom. During the last 10 years of his life, Herod was constantly changing his will and killing off wives and children.

In the winter of 5-4 B.C. Jesus was born and Herod's paranoid attitude had all the children of Bethlehem killed (cf. Matt. 2:1-16). Because of Herod's poor health two rabbis, Judas son of Sepphoraeus and Matthias son of Margalus, incited the Jews to tear down the offensive eagle from the temple gate. Herod ordered them to be burned alive. Herod further ordered all the notable Jews of the nation to be locked in the hippodrome at Jericho, with orders that they all be killed upon his own death - so that the nation would mourn his death!

2.) Herod Antipas . (cf. Luke 3:1; Matthew 14:1-14; Mark 6:14-29; Luke 9:7-9; 13:31-32; 23:12 with Luke 13:1) Herod Antipas was the son of Herod and Malthrace, who was a Samaritan. His brother was Archelaus. Born in 20 B.C., Herod Antipas is mentioned most often in the NT because he was the tetrarch over Galilee and Perea, where John the Baptist and Christ ministered. Antipas was also a builder and rebuilt Sepphoris which became the capital of his territories.⁽³⁰⁾ Antipas then built a new capital, Tiberius which was named after the Roman emperor. Finished in A.D. 25 Antipas had difficulty populating the city, as it was discovered that part of it was built on a cemetery, which made it unclean to the Jews.

Herod Antipas imprisoned John the Baptist and had him beheaded in A.D. 31 or 32. (cf. Mk. 6:17-29) Evidently, Augustus had arranged a marriage with the daughter of the Nabatean king Aretas IV, sometime before A.D. 14. In A.D. 29 Antipas visited his brother Herod Philip and convinced his wife Herodias (the niece of Antipas) to divorce and move to Tiberius. She agreed, if he would divorce his own wife, the daughter of the Nabatean king Aretas IV. John the Baptist publicly preached against this sin (cf. Lev. 18:16; 20:21 with Dt. 25:5; Mk. 12:19), resulting in his imprisonment and the rage of Herodias. At Herod Antipas's birthday at Machaerus in Perea, Herodias planned John's execution.

Herod Antipas had evidently become somewhat paranoid over John the Baptist's death and thought Jesus was a reincarnated John. (cf. Matt. 14:1ff; Mk. 6:14-16; Lk. 9:7-9) As Jesus began his final journey toward Jerusalem, but was still in Galilee, some Pharisees informed Him that Antipas wanted to kill Him.⁽³¹⁾

In A.D. 36 Aretas attacked and defeated Herod Antipas, to avenge the treatment of her daughter. The Jews viewed this defeat as divine retribution upon Antipas for his killing of John the Baptist. While preparations were being made to challenge Aretas, the Emperor Tiberius died, and Caligula bestowed upon Herod Agrippa I the title of king, which infuriated his sister - Herodias. Herod Antipas and Herodias journeyed to Rome to appeal to Caligula, but was instead banished to Lugdunum Covenarum in southern France, on the foothills of the Pyrenes.

3.) Herod Philip. (cf. Luke 3:1) The son of Herod the Great and Cleopatra of Jerusalem was appointed by Augustus tetrarch over the northern area of his father's kingdom. Herod Philip married Salome whose dance led to the execution of John the Baptist. He rebuilt two cities of significance: the former Paneas which he renamed Caesarea Philippi (cf. Matt. 16:13-20) in honor of the Roman emperor and to distinguish it from Caesarea on the coast; and Bethsaida which he renamed Julias in honor of Augustus' daughter Julia. It was here that Jesus healed the blind man (Mk. 8:22-26) and near here where He fed the five thousand and four thousand.

4. Herod Archelaus.

5. Herod Agrippa I.

Herod Agrippa I was friendly to the Jews at the expense of Christian persecution. (cf. Acts 12:1-19) In A.D. 44 Agrippa gave a speech in Caesarea wearing a bright robe, received flattery by the crowds and was struck down by the Lord. Dr. Luke reports he was "eaten by worms." (cf. Acts 12:20-23) Once again, we hear "the voice forever shouting across of the universe the laws of right and wrong."

6. Herod Agrippa II.

Conclusion:

If for Greece the measure of all things was man, for Rome the measure of all things was law. For the east the measure of all things was the king, and...for the Jews the measure of all things was God.⁽³³⁾

God's providence is specifically taught and broadly illustrated in the Bible. It is also illustrated in the flow of history as seen from Cyrus of Persia to Augustus of Rome. Berkhof defines providence:

That continued exercise of the divine energy whereby the Creator preserves all His creatures, is operative in all that comes to pass in the world, and directs all things to their appointed end.⁽³⁴⁾

The student of history as the student of Scripture is able to see the Sovereign God direct all things to their appointed end - His plan for time. During the period between the OT and the NT, the Lord's plan included the providing of a cultural atmosphere conducive to the message of redemption found in Jesus Christ. As Paul states in Galatians 4:4 states, "But, when the fullness of time was come, God sent forth his Son."

Questions Lectures One & Two: 

Be prepared to discuss the following issues from Lectures #1 and #2, during our next class.⁽³⁵⁾

1. According to Isaiah 44:28-45:4 will we see Cyrus in heaven? how was Cyrus used of God to accomplish His will?

2. Alexander the Great championed the spread of Hellenism. What major language was he responsible for popularizing, and how was this used of God?

3. According to Daniel 9:24-27 and 12:11 what is the "abomination that maketh desolate"? according to Matthew 24:15 who is the "abomination that maketh desolate"?

4. What are the 4 major kingdoms of Nebuchadnezzar's and Daniel's vision (cf. Daniel 2:31-43 and 7:1-28)? how does the bear, leopard and fourth beast illustrate their respective kingdoms?

5. Our outline of the Herodian dynasty included 6 major Herodians. Can you name them and list one major aspect of their reign?

6. The Jews saw the death of Herod Antipas as God vindicating Himself. Concerning what event did the Jews relate this in the reign of Antipas?⁽³⁶⁾

7. What were some of the circumstances surrounding the friction between Pilate and Herod Antipas? What helped heal that relationship?

Selected Bibliography:

Cohen, J. D. From the Maccabees to the Mishnah. Library of Early Christianity, Wayne A. Meeks, Editor (Philadelphia: The Westminister Press, 1987). pp. 1-231.

Durant, Will. The Story of Civilization: Part II, The Life of Greece (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1939), p..459-666.

___________

Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1987). pp. 1-36

Hoehner, Harold W. Herod

Metzger, Bruce M. The New Testament: It's Background, Growth, and Content (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1965). pp. 17-66.

Tenny. Merrill C. New Testament History

Yamauchi, Edwin M. Persia and the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1990).

1. cf. F. F. Bruce, New Testament History (Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1980 edition). This course will generally follow the outline of F. F. Bruce, with assigned readings for class preparation covering 1 or 2 chapters for each class. The class lectures will be recorded and edited to play on "The Quest of the Teacher" radio program, so we will seek to make the lectures lively as to speak to a more popular audience. Following each class lecture will be our Question and Answer Session of 15-25 minutes.

2. Lecture One, will cover material from Bruce pages 1-31. A distinction of the Bible Teaching Services NT History Course, is its integration of the relevant Biblical passages. Students should make sure to read the passages, instead of simply ignoring the reference.

3. The Median Empire was absorbed by the Persians. Hence, Daniel refers to the laws of "the Medes and the Persians," which cannot be annuled (cf. Daniel 6:8,12,15); Esther reverses the order to, "Persia and Media" (cf. Esther 1:3,14).

4. The OT prophets Haggai and Zechariah were instrumental in motivating the slow rebuilding of the temple. cf. Haggai 1:1-15; Zechariah 4:8-14.

5. cf. 2 Chronicles 36:22-23. Cyrus is mentioned in one of the most startling prophecies in the OT. The Lord said to Isaiah, "Who saith of Cyrus, He is my shepherd, and shall perform all my pleasure; even saying to Jerusalem, Thou shalt be built; and to the temple, Thy foundation shall be laid. Thus saith the Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose right have I held,,,For Jacob, my servant's sake, and Israel mine elect, I have called thee by thy name; I have surnamed thee, though thou hast not known me." (cf. Isaiah 44:28-45:4) God calls this first Persian king his "shepherd" and His "anointed," who will "perform all" God's pleasure, and yet Cyrus "hast not known me." Cyrus was an unbeliever used in the sovereign providence of God to rebuild the temple. And the startling issue in this prophecy is that Cyrus would not even come on the political scene for about 150 after Isaiah's prophecy! God "calleth those things which are not as though they are, " as He sovereignly directs the kingdom's of men. History is indeed His story - the unfolding drama of His providential plan of redemption.

6. Darius continued the enlightened foreign policy, allowing the Jews to finish rebuilding their temple, as the prophets Haggai and Zechariah date their messages from the second year of Darius. cf. Erza 6:15; Haggai 1:1; Zech. 1:1. Evidently Darius had converted to Zoroastrianism, resulting in a departure from monotheism to a system of dualism. The identification of "Darius the Mede" in Daniel (cf. 5:31; 6:1-2; 9:1-2; 11:1) is difficult. Yamauchi summarizes the three major views: John Whitcomb identifies him with Gubaru/Gobryas, the provincial governor of Babylon. cf. J. Whitcomb, Darius the Mede. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959). Second, Wiseman translates Daniel 6:28 as "Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius even the reign of Cyrus the Persian," and so takes the name Darius as a throne name. cf. D. J. Wiseman, Some Historical Problems in the Book of Daniel, in Notes on Some Problems in the Book of Daniel (London: Tyndale, 1965), pp. 12-16. The third view by William H. Shea identifies him with Gubaru I, the conqueror of Babylon [Gubaru II was the governor of Babylon], pointing out six points in which the careers of Gubaru I and Darius the Mede match: 1. Gubaru led the Medo-Persian troops who captured Babylon (cf. Dan. 5:28). 2. He installed governors there (cf. Dan. 6:1-2). 3. He was old, since he died soon after the capture of Babylon (cf. Dan. 5:30). 4. He died about a year after he conquered Babylon (Dan. 9:1; 11:1). 5. The distinctions between Darius and Cyrus in Daniel fits the chronology. and 6. Just as Darius was "made king," Gubaru I, served as a vassel under Cyrus. cf. W. H. Shea Darius the Mede: An Update , Andrews University Seminary Studies 20 (1982):229-48; cf. Edwin M. Yamauchi, Persia and the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1990), pp. 58-59.

7. Daniel 11:2,3 (NIV) The "three more kings" appearing in Persia were to be Cambyses, Gaumata and Darius I. The "mighty king" (vs. 3) refers to Alexander the Great who unified the Greek to overthrow the Persian empire.

8. Herodotus claimed that the army was so large, that when they drank "whole rivers ran dry." cf. Herodotus, pp. 184-186, 196. Will Durant states this force took four years to assemble, from all over the Persian empire. "There were Persians, Medes, Babylonians, Afgans, Indians, Bactrians, Sogdians, Sacae, Assyrians, Armenians, Colchians, Scyths, Paeonians, Mysians, Paphlogonians, Phryians, Thracians, Thessalians, Locrians, Boeotians, Aeolians, Egyptians, Ethiopians, Libyans, and many more. There were footmen, cavalrymen, chariots. elephants, and a fleet of transports and fighting triremes numbering, according to Herodotus, 1207 ships in all. When Greek spies were caught in the camp, and a general ordered their execution, Xerxes countermanded the order, spared the men, had them conducted through his forces, and then set them free, trusting that when they had reported to Athens and Sparta the extent of his preparations, the remainder of Greece would hasten to surrender." cf. Will Durant, The Life of Greece, The Story of Civilization (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1939), p.238.

9. Ibid., p.242.

10. Herodotus vi, p.98.

11. By 512 B.C. Persia controlled Afganistan, northern India, Turkestan, Mesopotamia, northern Arabia, Egypt, Cyprus, Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, the eastern Aegean, Thrace and Macedonia. Greece remained outside Persian controlled, but was challenged at Marathon in 491 B.C., where a Persian fleet of 600 ships, with about 100,000 soldiers were defeated by about 20,000 Greeks, with 6,400 Persians being killed and only 192 Greeks. The battle at Marathon was one of the most incredible victories in history!

12. Hellenism "must be treated as a complex phenomenon which cannot be limited to purely political, socio-economic, cultural or religious aspects, but embraces them all. The starting-point and point of reference is the expansion of Greece which was in the making in the fourth century BC, reached its political and military climax with the expedition of Alexander, and was followed by economic and cultural penetration; the East answered this in the religious sphere by accepting it, rejecting it and developing counter-movements." cf. Martin Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism translated by John Bowden from the German (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974), p.3.

13. cf. Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing House, 1987), p.5. He goes on to quote Isocrates classic comment on Hellenism: "And so far has our city [Athens] distanced the rest of mankind in thought and speech that her pupils have become the teachers of the rest of the world; and she has brought it about that the name Hellenes suggests no longer a race but an intelligence, and the title Hellenes is applied rather to those who share our culture than to those who share a common blood." cf. Panegyricus 50, trans. George Norlin in Loeb Classical Library.

14. Will Durant, The Life of Greece, The Story of Civilization Part II (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1939), pp.476-7. He continues his description: "The Macedonian soldier, after hurling his lance, fought with a short sword, and protected himself with a brass helmet, a coat of mail, greaves, and a lightweight shield. Behind the phalanx came a regiment of old fashioned archers, who shot their arrows over the heads of the lancers; then came a siege train with catapults and battering rams." p.477.

15. As Ferguson suggests, "Philip made war less amateurish. He fought year-round, winter as well as spring (cf. 2 Sam. 11:1 for the older practice), which was something like using poison gas now." Ibid., p.6.

16. The angelic interpretation of Daniel's vision of 8:1-14) was given in 8:15-26. "The two-horned ram that you saw represents the kings of Media and Persia. The shaggy goat is the king of Greece, and the large horn between his eyes is the first king. The four horns that replaced the one that was broken off represent four kingdoms that will emerge from his nation but will not have the same power." (Dan. 8:20-22 NIV)

17. Under Alexander a "common Greek" (i.e., common to all Greeks) or koine Greek was fashioned and popularized. This became the lingua franca of the ancient NT world, similar to what English has become today - the trade language, among different countries and peoples. Taking the best elements from the various Greek dialects, the end result was the precision of koine Greek, which was the best language vehicle to communicate the redemptive plan of Jesus Christ - the New Testament. Many peoples of the Roman world would be bi-lingual or tri-lingual, but the unifying language was not Latin (the official language of the Roman empire) but koine Greek.

18. Will Durant summarizes Alexander's contribution: "Acting as the agent of historical necessity, he put an end to the era of city-states and, by sacrificing a substantial measure of local freedom, created a larger system of stability and order than Europe had yet known....He broke down the barriers between Greek and 'barbarian,' and prepared for the cosmopolitanism of the Hellenistic age; he opened Hither Asia to Greek colonization, and established Greek settlements as far east as Bactria; he united the eastern Mediterranean world into one great web of commerce, liberating and stimulating trade. he brought Greek literature, philosophy, and art to Asia, and died before he could realize that he had also made a pathway for the religious victory of the East over the West...through all battles and all bloodshed he kept before his eyes the dream of bringing the light of Athens to a larger world." Durant, p.552.

19. Michael Green, Evangelism in the Early Church (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1970), p.17. Although the philosophical heritage (Plato, Aristotle, etc.) used Classical Greek to hammer out specific linguistic definition, koine Greek inherited those conclusions.

20. Why does the Book of Daniel mention two visions on the same theme? "In chapter 2, the four earthly kingdoms and Christ's heavenly kingdom were seen in their outward political appearance; by contrast, chapter 7 presents God's estimate of their innermost moral and spiritual features...In chapter 2, King Nebuchadnezzar saw the splendor of world empires portrayed in the dazzling statue of a man, while the kingdom of God was symbolized by a stone. By contrast, in chapter 7, Daniel's vision reveals the animalistic character of world empires and the fact that it is only in the Kingdom of God that man's full dignity is realized - in the Son of Man." cf. Charles L. Feinberg, Daniel: the Kingdom of the Lord (Winona Lake: BMH Books, 1981), p.84.

21. The Roman envoy of the senate C. Popilius Laenas ordered Antiochus IV to withdraw from Egypt. When Antiochus IV responded that he needed time to consider it, Laenas drew a circle on the ground around the Seleucid king, telling Antiochus not to step out of the circle until he had given his promise to withdraw from Egypt. It was this act which infuriated Antiochus IV, so on his return through Palestine he took his frustration out on the Jews at Jerusalem.

22. Although Antiochus IV called himself "Epiphanes" (meaning "the manifest God") the Jews called him Antiochus Epimanes - Antiochus the insane.

23. Evidently, the Jews tried to use the opportunity of Rome's challenge to Antiochus IV, by forcing Menelaus out of the high priest position, to replace him with Jason. Menelaus did not belong to the Zadokite line, from which the high priest was to come. Also, under Menelaus the temple had been turned over to the cult of Olympian Zeus. "For three years - from December, 167 B.C. to December, 164 B.C. - this 'appalling sacrifice' or 'abomination of desolation' dominated the holy house." cf. Bruce, p.4.

24. Daniel 8:14 (NIV). "There were two daily sacrifices for the burnt offering (9:21; Ex. 29:38-42), representing the atonement required for Israel as a whole. The 2,300 evenings and mornings probably refer to the number of sacrifices consecutively offered on 1,150 days, the interval between the desecration of the Lord's altar and its re consecration by Judas Maccabeus on Kislev 25, 165 B.C. The pagan altar set up by Antiochus on Kislev 25, 168, was apparently installed almost two months after the Lord's altar was removed, accounting for the difference between 1,095 days (an exact three years) and the 1,150 specified [in Daniel 8:14]." cf. Kenneth Barker general editor, The NIV Study Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publications, 1985), p.1312.

25. Since the temple's purification, the Jews have celebrated the Feast of Dedication or Hanukkah on the 25th day of Kislev or our December 25th. (cf. John 10:22)

26. Daniel 2:40; 7:7,23. cf. John F. Walvoord, Daniel: The Key to Prophetic Revelation (Chicago: Moody Press, 1971), pp. 62-76, 145-177; H. C. Leupold, Exposition of Daniel (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1969 edition), p. 107-126, 276-329.

27. Second century B.C. Greek historian Polybius believed it was the fear of the gods that held together the balance of the Roman monarchic (consul), oligarchic (senate), and democratic (assemblies), elements. "The quality in which the Roman commonwealth is most distinctly superior is in my opinion the nature of their religious convictions. I believe that it is the very thing which among other peoples is an object of reproach, I mean superstition, which maintains the cohesion of the Roman state." cf. Histories VI. 56. Roman orator Cicero would agree: "We have excelled neither Spain in population, nor Gaul in vigor, nor Carthage in versatility, nor Greece in art, nor, indeed Italy and Latium itself in the innate sensibility characteristic of this land and its peoples, but in piety, in devotion to religion...we have excelled every race and every nation." cf. Cicero, Concerning the Response of the Soothsayers ix,19.

28. cf. The text of Octavian's res gestrae is preserved in an inscription in the Temple at Rome. Octavian exceeded everyone in auctoritas - innate power and prestige, referring to someone the people naturally follow.

29. cf. Josephus, Antiquites of the Jews, xv.1.2 [5f.]; xiv. 9.4.

30. Sepphoris was the largest city in Galilee and functioned as the capital until Tiberias was built. Because Nazareth is only 4 miles SSW of Sepporis, it is probable that Joseph the husband of Mary may have done carpenter work during its construction. (cf. Matt. 13:55; Mk. 6:3)

31. Jesus wasn't concerned about Herod Antipas' threat, but told the Pharisees to "Go and tell that fox" that He would continue His ministry. Hendricksen comments: "Why did he call Herod a fox? According to some, to indicate Herod's insignificance. That is possible. The more commonly held view that it was because of the tetrarch's slyness or craftiness agrees better with the context. Jesus saw through Herod's trick: making use of others [i.e., the Pharisees] to try to scare him away from the territory under Herod's control, and suggesting that they give him a 'friendly' warning, while, all the time, Herod himself remained in the background!" cf. William Hendriksen, Exposition of the Gospel According to Luke (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1978), p.709.

32. Pilate had killed a number of Galilean citizens. (cf. Lk. 13:1). Herod Antipas had also reported Pilate to Emperor Tiberius, when Pilate brought votive shields into Jerusalem. Tiberius ordered their removal, which resulted in Pilate needing to placate Herod Antipas. Dealing with Jesus was the ideal occasion, which evidently restored further working relations between the former enemies. (cf. Lk. 23:12) cf. Judea Under Roman Governors, Bruce pp. 32-40 and Lecture Notes by Bible Teaching Services.

33. cf. A. D. Nock, Religious Attitudes of the Ancient Greeks, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 85 (1942):480 (Essays, 547).

34. cf. Louis Berkhof, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1939) p.166.

35. These 7 questions (1 for every 2 days) are to help the student carefully focus on the lectures and reading. For the student to receive a certificate of completion for the course, he should be write out each answer and be ready to hand in stages of the course.

36. In preparation for Lectures #3 and #4 read Bruce pages 32-55, on Judea Under Roman Governors and The Philosophical Schools.